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Social sequence analysis
Social sequence analysis is a special application of sequence analysis, a set of methods that were originally designed in bioinformatics to analyze DNA, RNA, and peptide sequences.〔 Abbott, Andrew. 1995. “Sequence Analysis: New Methods for Old Ideas.” ''Annual Review of Sociology'' 21:93-113. 〕 Social sequence analysis involves the examination of ordered ''social'' processes, ranging from microsocial interaction patterns (for example, turn-taking dynamics in conversations) and interpersonal contact dynamics to the development of social hierarchies and macrosocial temporal patterns.〔 Cornwell, Benjamin. 2015. ''Social Sequence Analysis: Methods and Applications.'' Cambridge University Press.〕 The analysis of such patterns can involve descriptive accounts of sequence patterns, statistical event history analysis, optimal matching analysis, narrative or event structure analysis, and dynamic social network sequencing. After being introduced to the social sciences in the 1980s and a period of slow growth during the 1990s, social sequence methods have become increasingly prevalent.〔 Aisenbrey, S., and A. E. Fasang. 2010. “New Life for Old Ideas: The ‘Second Wave’ of Sequence Analysis: Bringing the ‘Course’ Back into the Life Course.” ''Sociological Methods & Research'' 38:420-462. 〕
== History ==
Sequence analysis methods were first imported into the social sciences from the biological sciences by the University of Chicago sociologist Andrew Abbott in the 1980s, and they have since developed in ways that are unique to the social sciences.〔 Abbott, Andrew. 1984. "Event Sequence and Event Duration: Colligation and Measurement." ''Historical Methods'', 17:192-204.〕〔 Abbott, Andrew, and John Forrest. 1986. "Optimal Matching Methods for Historical Data." ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'', 16:473-96.〕〔 Abbott, Andrew. 1990. “A Primer on Sequence Methods." ''Organization Science'' 1:373-92. 〕〔 Abbott, Andrew. 1995. “Sequence Analysis: New Methods for Old Ideas.” ''Annual Review of Sociology'' 21:93-113. 〕〔 Cornwell, Benjamin. 2015. ''Social Sequence Analysis: Methods and Applications.'' Cambridge University Press.〕 Scholars in psychology, economics, anthropology, demography, communication, political science, and especially sociology have been using sequence methods ever since.
Psychologists have used those methods to study how the order of information affects learning, and to identify structure in interactions between individuals.〔 Bakeman, Roger, and John M. Gottman. 1997. ''Observing Interaction: An Introduction to Sequential Analysis'', 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 〕〔 Clegg, Benjamin A., Gregory J. DiGirolamo, and Steven W. Keele. 1998. “Sequence Learning.” Trends in ''Cognitive Sciences'' 2 (8):275–81. 〕〔 Cohen, Asher, Richard I. Ivry, and Steven W. Keele. 1990. “Attention and structure in sequence learning.” ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition'' 16:17-30. 〕〔 Gottman, John Mordechai, and Anup Kumar Roy. 1990. ''Sequential Analysis: A Guide for Behavioral Researchers''. New York: Cambridge University Press. 〕〔 Ritter, Frank E., Josef Nerb, Erno Lehtinen, and Timothy M. O'Shea. 2007. ''In Order to Learn: How the Sequence of Topics Influences Learning''. New York: Oxford University Press. 〕 In sociology, sequence techniques are most commonly employed in studies of patterns of life-course development, cycles, and life histories.〔 Abbott, Andrew. 1995. “Sequence Analysis: New Methods for Old Ideas.” ''Annual Review of Sociology'' 21:93-113. 〕〔 Blair-Loy, Mary.1999. “Career Patterns of Executive Women in Finance: An Optimal Matching Analysis.” ''American Journal of Sociology'' 104:1346-1397. 〕〔 Brzinsky-Fay, Christian, and Ulrich Kohler. 2010. “New Developments in Sequence Analysis.” ''Sociological Methods & Research'' 38:359-64. 〕〔 Gauthier, Jacques-Antoine, Eric D. Widmer, Philipp Bucher, and Cédric Notredame. 2010. “Multichannel Sequence Analysis Applied to Social Science Data.” ''Sociological Methodology'' 40:1-38. 〕〔 Han, Shin-Kap, and Phyllis Moen. 1999b.”Work and Family over Time: A Life Course Approach.” ''The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science'' 562:98-110. 〕〔 Pollock, Gary, Valerie Antcliff, and Rob Ralphs. 2002. “Work Orders: Analysing Employment Histories Using Sequence Data.” ''International Journal of Social Research Methodology'' 5:91-105.〕 There has been a great deal of work on the sequential development of careers,〔Abbott, A., and A. Hrycak. 1990. “Measuring Resemblance in Sequence Data: An Optimal Matching Analysis of Musicians’ Careers.” ''American Journal of Sociology'' 96:144-185. 〕〔 Blair-Loy, Mary.1999. “Career Patterns of Executive Women in Finance: An Optimal Matching Analysis.” ''American Journal of Sociology'' 104:1346-1397. 〕〔Brzinsky-Fay, Christian. 2007. “Lost in Transition? Labour Market Entry Sequences of School Leavers in Europe.” ''European Sociological Review'' 23:409-422. 〕 and there is increasing interest in how career trajectories intertwine with life-course sequences.〔Pollack, Gary. 2007. “Holistic Trajectories: A Study of Combined Employment, Housing and Family Careers by Using Multiple-Sequence Analysis.” ''Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A'' 170:167-83. 〕 Many scholars have used sequence techniques to model how work and family activities are linked in household divisions of labor and the problem of schedule synchronization within families.〔 Cornwell, Benjamin, and Elizabeth Warburton. 2014. "Work Schedules and Community Ties." ''Work and Occupations'', in press. 〕〔 Lesnard, Laurent. 2008. “Off-Scheduling within Dual-Earner Couples: An Unequal and Negative Externality for Family Time.” ''American Journal of Sociology'' 114:447-90. 〕〔 Wight, V. R., S. B. Raley, and S. M. Bianchi. 2008. “Time for Children, One’s Spouse and Oneself among Parents Who Work Nonstandard Hours.” ''Social Forces'' 87:243-71. 〕 The study of interaction patterns is increasingly centered on sequential concepts, such as turn-taking, the predominance of reciprocal utterances, and the strategic solicitation of preferred types of responses.〔 Gibson, David R. 2003. “Participation Shifts: Order and Differentiation in Group Conversation.” ''Social Forces'' 81:1335-1380. 〕〔Gibson, David R. 2005b. “Taking Turns and Talking Ties: Network Structure and Conversational Sequence.” ''American Journal of Sociology'' 110:1561-1597. 〕 Social network analysts have begun to turn to sequence methods and concepts to understand how social contacts and activities are enacted in real time,〔 Butts, Carter T. 2008. “A Relational Event Framework for Social Action.” Sociological Methodology 38:155-200.〕〔 Cornwell, Benjamin. 2013. “Switching Dynamics and the Stress Process.” Social Psychology Quarterly 76:99-124.〕 and to model and depict how whole networks evolve.〔 Stark, David, and Balázs Vedres. 2006. “Social Times of Network Spaces: Network Sequences and Foreign Investment in Hungary.” American Journal of Sociology 111:1367-1411.〕〔 Vedres, Balazs, and David Stark. 2010. "Structural Folds: Generative Disruption in Overlapping Groups1." ''American Journal of Sociology'' 115:1150-1190.〕 Social network epidemiologists have begun to examine social contact sequencing to better understand the spread of disease.〔 Moody, James. 2002. “The Importance of Relationship Timing for Diffusion.” ''Social Forces'' 81:25-56. 〕〔 Morris, Martina and Mirjam Kretzschmar. 1995. “Concurrent Partnerships and Transmission Dynamics in Networks.” ''Social Networks'' 17:299-318. 〕
The use of sequence methods was initially met with criticism by sociologists who objected to the descriptive and data-reducing orientation of early sequence methods, as well as to a lack of fit between bioinformatic sequence methods and uniquely social phenomena.〔 Levine, Joel H. 2000. “But What Have You Done for Us Lately?: Commentary on Abbott and Tsay: Sequence Analysis.” ''Sociological Methods & Research'' 29:34-40. 〕〔 Wu, Lawrence L. 2000. “Some comments on ‘Sequence Analysis and Optimal Matching Methods in Sociology: Review and Prospect.’” ''Sociological Methods & Research'' 29:41-64. 〕 Since 2000 there has been a surge of interest in refining sequence methods, leading to some major improvements in social sequence methods.〔 Aisenbrey, S., and A. E. Fasang. 2010. “New Life for Old Ideas: The ‘Second Wave’ of Sequence Analysis: Bringing the ‘Course’ Back into the Life Course.” ''Sociological Methods & Research'' 38:420-62. 〕〔 Brzinsky-Fay, Christian, and Ulrich Kohler. 2010. “New Developments in Sequence Analysis.” ''Sociological Methods & Research'' 38:359-64. 〕〔 Cornwell, Benjamin. 2015. ''Social Sequence Analysis: Methods and Applications.'' Cambridge University Press.〕 Many of the methodological developments in social sequence analysis came on the heels of a 2000 special issue devoted to the topic in ''Sociological Methods & Research'', which hosted a debate over methods for comparing sequences. That debate has given rise to several methodological innovations that address limitations of sequence comparison methods that were designed in the 20th century. In a 2006 article in the ''American Journal of Sociology'', David Stark and Balazs Vedre proposed the term "social sequence analysis" to distinguish the approach from bioinformatic sequence analysis. ''Sociological Methods & Research'' organized another special issue on social sequence analysis in 2010, leading to what scholars have dubbed the “second wave” of sequence analysis.〔 Aisenbrey, S., and A. E. Fasang. 2010. “New Life for Old Ideas: The ‘Second Wave’ of Sequence Analysis: Bringing the ‘Course’ Back into the Life Course.” ''Sociological Methods & Research'' 38:420-462.〕 Scholars who have made important contributions to social sequence analysis theory, techniques, data collection, or software development include Andrew Abbott (Chicago), Roger Bakeman (Georgia State University), Peter Bearman (Columbia), Benjamin Cornwell (Cornell), John Gottman (Washington), Laurent Lesnard (Sciences Po), Christian Brzinsky-Fay and Ulrich Kohler (Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung), Cees Elzinga (VU University Amsterdam), Jonathan Gershuny (Oxford), David Heise (Indiana), Raffaella Piccarreta (Università Bocconi), and Katherine Stovel (Washington).
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